Chapter 5:
Applications of propositional logic to program proving


5.1 Propositions
5.2 Inference rules
5.3 And-introduction and And-elimination
5.4 Or-introduction and Or-elimination
5.5 Implies-introduction and Implies-elimination
5.6 Negation
    5.6.1 Negation introduction
    5.6.2 Proof by contradiction
5.7 Important equivalences
5.8 Conjunctive normal form
    5.8.1 Resolution theorem proving
5.9 Models of Propositional logic: soundness and completeness
    5.9.1 Truth tables
    5.9.2 Boolean lattices
    5.9.3 Data structures as meanings; Heyting lattices
    5.9.4 Possible-worlds (Kripke) structures
5.10 Summary of rules and tactics


Symbolic logic is the study of assertions (declarative statements) using the connectives, and, or, not, implies, for all, there exists. It is a ``starter language'' for stating laws for other areas. (Example: in algebra, we use symbolic logic to declare, ``for all (every) integer(s), i, there exists an integer j such that j > i.'') Without symbolic logic, modern math, physics, philosophy, computing, and electronics simply would not exist.

Anyone who works in one of the above-stated technical areas must be competent in using symbolic logic, and in particular, in performing deduction.

Deduction is the synthesis of new facts --- consequences --- from known facts. An example: a cases analysis of the assertion that x < 0 ∨ x > 0 lets us deduce that x != 0 and that 1.0/x is a non-erroneous, floating-point number. Another example, stated in almost every logic text written in the last 50 years, goes

  All humans are mortal
   and
  Socrates is a human.

   Therefore,
  Socrates is mortal.

These examples of deduction go beyond what we can do with mere truth tables alone, and the purpose of this chapter is to provide a set of deduction rules (also known as inference rules) that you can use to deduce new facts. The rules will be written so that they can be used in math, physics, computing, etc.

Up to now, we have used informally symbolic logic and algebra to deduce knowledge generated by computer programs. That is, we have used

programmming-logic-rules-for-assign-if-functions-while 
  +  algebra laws
       +  a few symbolic-logic rules (∧i, ∧e, ∨e, ...)
We will develop the symbolic-logic rules in detail.


5.1 Propositions

Symbolic logic manipulates propositions, which are assertions --- declarative statements that can be understood as ``true'' (it's a fact) or ``false'' (it's wrong).

Examples of propositions from algebra are

x > 0
y == 2*x + 1
2 > 4
The third proposition is always understood as false, whereas the first two might be true or false, depending on the values of x and y.

Examples of propositions written in English are

Socrates is a human.
The sun is shining.
I have a million bucks in my pocket.
In English, we can also write sentences that are not propositions: ``Will it rain tomorrow?'' is a question and not a true-false proposition. We will always stay within algebra and form true-false propositions from arithmetic operators like + and / and comparison operators like == and >.

The operators, , , —>, ¬, are called propositional connectives because they connect together propositions to make new propositions. (Example: (x > 0 ∨ x < 0) —> ¬(2x = 0) is a proposition that connects together x > 0, x < 0, and 2x = 0 with ¬, , and —>.)

Later we will study and , which are more delicate than the propositional connectives and are called quantifiers.


5.2 Inference rules

The propositional connectives are a kind of data-structure language for building propositional-data-structures from basic, primitive propositions. For this reason, we must have laws for constructing the propositions and for disassembling them. These laws are called inference rules or deduction rules, and a natural deduction system is a set of inference rules, such that for each connective, there is a rule for constructing a proposition with a connective (this is called an introduction rule) and there is a rule for disassembling a proposition with the connective (this is called an elimination rule).

For the sections that follow, we will review the introduction and elimination rules for each propositional connective, give examples of their use in proofs, describe strategies for applying to rules, and present relevant applications in programming logic. When we present the rules, we will use the letters, P, Q, R, ..., to represent propositions (rather than use x > 0, etc., as propositions).

The notation,

P0, P1, ..., Pm |− Q
(read as, ``P0, P1, ..., Pm entails Q'') is a claim --- a sequent --- that asserts propositions Pi let us deduce Q. The Pi are called premises and Q is called the consequent.

For example, x > y, y = z + 1 |− x > z. It says, ``when premises x > y and y = z + 1 are accepted as facts (true propositions), then consequent x > z is guaranteed to be a fact as well.

When we state such a claim --- a sequent --- we must supply a proof to support the claim. We use deduction rules to make a proof.


5.3 And-introduction and And-elimination

It is easy to work with the conjunction connective, . Clearly, P, Q |− P ∧ Q, that is, when both P and Q are facts, then so is the proposition, P ∧ Q. Dually, we accept that P ∧ Q |− P as well as P ∧ Q |− Q. Here are the deduction rules that formalize these intuitions:

Rules:

        P   Q               P ∧ Q            P ∧ Q
∧i :  ---------     ∧e1 : --------     ∧e2 : --------
        P ∧ Q                 P                 Q
It is a tradition to draw the rules as a kind of ``arithmetic sum-up expression'': when we have proof of the propositions above the horizontal bar, then we deduce a proof of the proposition below the bar.

The rules are used to build proofs of new facts from starting facts (premises). A proof is written as a sequence of deduction steps. Here are some examples.

Examples

===================================================

P, Q, R |− R ∧ (Q ∧ P)

1. P                    premise (a starting fact)
2. Q                    premise
3. R                    premise
4. Q ∧ P                ∧i 2,1
5. R ∧ (Q ∧ P)          ∧i 3,4

===================================================
Read line 4 like this: ``from the fact stated on line 2 and the fact stated on line 1, we deduce Q ∧ P by applying the ∧i law.'' Lines 4 and 5 construct new facts from the starting facts (premises) on lines 1-3. A proof generates new knowledge from existing knowledge by using deduction rules.
===================================================

P ∧ (Q ∧ R) |−  R ∧ P

1. P ∧ (Q ∧ R)        premise
2. P                  ∧e1 1
3. Q ∧ R             ∧e2 1
4. R                  ∧e2 3
5. R ∧ P             ∧i 4,2

===================================================
The two examples seen so far suggest that a proposition like R ∧ P is like a pair, (R, P), in Python that we can disassemble by indexing. The ∧e rule does the indexing, and the ∧i-does the pair-building.
===================================================

P |− P ∧ P

1. P            premise
2. P ∧ P       ∧i 1,1

===================================================
This example shows you can use a premise multiple times in a proof.

It is easy to prove P ∧ Q |− P (use ∧e1), but we cannot prove P |− P ∧ Q. This reminds us that deduction rules develop new knowledge, but the knowledge might be weaker than the starting facts used to deduce the knowledge. When we have propositions P and Q and we prove both P |− Q and also Q |− P, we write P −||− Q and say that P and Q are equivalent --- they hold the ``same amounts of knowledge.''

Tactics

A tactic is a useful step towards proving a goal. The rules for conjunction come with these two tactics, which we rate from (*) to (***) based on their utility: Let's apply the tactics to one of the previous examples:
  1. Prove P ∧ (Q ∧ R) |− R ∧ P: Use the (***)-∧i tactic to generate two subgoals, P ∧ (Q ∧ R) |− R and also P ∧ (Q ∧ R) |− P:
    1.   P ∧ (Q ∧ R)   premises
           (fill in)
    i.   R
           (fill in)
    k.   P
    k+1. R ∧ P   ∧i i,j
    
  2. Since the (***)-tactic can't be used on either subgoal, apply the (**)-∧e-tactic to the premise:
    1.   P ∧ (Q ∧ R)   premises
    2.   P             ∧e1 1     (succeeded in proving subgoal, P)
    3.   Q ∧ R         ∧e2 1
         (fill in)
    i.   R
    i+1.  R ∧ P   ∧i i,j
    
  3. We can prove the remaining subgoal by applying the ∧e-tactic once more:
    1.   P ∧ (Q ∧ R)   premises
    2.   P              ∧e1 1     (succeeded in proving subgoal, P)
    3.   Q ∧ R         ∧e2 1
    4.   R              ∧e2 3     (succeeded in proving subgoal, R)
    5.   R ∧ P         ∧i 4,2
    

The -rules in programming logic:

From time to time, the ∧i and ∧e rules have appeared in the programming examples in the previous chapters. We can now make the connection --- using the facts (premises) generated by the program's commands, we use algebra and the deduction rules to deduce key information in our program analysis. Here is a precise treatment of a simple deduction we did in an earlier chapter:
===================================================

{ x > y  ∧  y == 3 }
x = x - 1 
{ 1. x = x_old - 1         premise (from the forwards-assignment law)
  2. x_old > y ∧ y = 3     premise (the fact that held before the assignment)
  3. x_old > y             ∧e1 2
  4. x > y - 1             algebra 1 3
  5. y == 3                ∧e2 2
  6.  x > y - 1  ∧  y = 3    ∧i 4,5
  (the last line of the proof must not mention any occurrence of  x_old)  
}

===================================================


5.4 Or-introduction and Or-elimination

It is a bit trickier reasoning about disjunction, , because there are multiple meanings of the word in English. We use the meaning ``one or the other or both.'' This causes us to accept the entailments, P |− P ∨ Q and Q |− P ∨ Q (as well as P |− P ∨ P), which give us the two versions of the ∨i deduction rule, seen below.

There must also be a rule for applying a fact of form, P ∨ Q, to deduce new knowledge. In real life, we call the rule ``case analysis''. For example, say that you have either 4 quarters in your pocket or 10 dimes in your pocket. In either case, you can buy a one-dollar coffee. Why? You do a case analysis: (i) in the case you have 4 quarters, that totals a dollar, and you can buy the coffee; (ii) in the case you have 10 dimes, that totals a dollar, and you can buy the coffee. So, in both cases, you can buy the coffee.

This pattern of deduction is formalized in the ∨e-rule below.

Rules:

                                                    ... P assume   ... Q assume
         P                  Q               P ∨ Q   ... R          ... R  
∨i1 : --------  ∨i2 :  --------        ∨e: ------------------------------
       P ∨ Q              P ∨ Q                         R
The ∨e-rule is the deduction-rule form of case analysis: you assume P and do deductions that prove R and then you assume Q and do another sequence of deductions to reprove R. Each case is a ``subproof'' that is indented with ellipses. Once both cases are proved, you conclude R no matter what.

Examples

===================================================

P |− Q ∨ P

1. P              premise
2. Q ∨ P        ∨i2 1

===================================================
Perhaps it seems strange to "weaken" fact P by attaching Q to it. Yet, we do this all the time. For example, when we say, ''today is Tuesday, so today is a weekday'', we have weakened ''today is Tuesday'' to ``today is Monday or Tuesday or ... or Friday.'' In math, we might have that x > 0, so we conclude that x != 0, that is, x > 0 |− (x < 0) ∨ (x > 0).

What is more interesting is that proposition Q in the above proof can be any proposition at all, and it need not be a true fact (P is the fact that matters here). For example, we can prove 2 == 1 + 1 |− (2 == 1 + 1) ∨ (1 == 0). This sequent is valid, because it is enough that 2 == 1 + 1 is a fact; literally, 1 == 0 does not matter.

A similar result goes

===================================================

P ∧ Q |− P ∨ Q

1. P ∧ Q        premise
2. P            ∧e1 1
3. P ∨ Q        ∨i1 2

===================================================
For that matter, we reprove this result using ∧e2:
===================================================

P ∧ Q |− P ∨ Q

1. P ∧ Q        premise
2. Q            ∧e2 1
3. P ∨ Q        ∨i2 2

===================================================
We cannot prove P ∨ Q |− P ∧ Q, which clearly shows that the ∨i rule generates ``weaker knowledge'' from its facts.

Here is a proof that uses case analysis --- ∨e --- to prove a useful sequent.

===================================================

P ∨ Q,  S  |− (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)

1. P ∨ Q              premise
2. S                  premise

... 3. P                    assumption   (the first case for line 1)
... 4. P ∧ S               ∧i 3,2
... 5. (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)  ∨i1 4

... 6. Q                    assumption   (the second case for line 1)
... 7. Q ∧ S               ∧i 6,2
... 8. (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)  ∨i2 7

9.  (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)   ∨e 1, 3-5, 6-8

===================================================
Each case --- the P case and the Q case --- proved the same fact, so we conclude that the fact holds no matter what. The indentation with the ellipses are used here to show that we started a subproof with an additional what-if premise (called an assumption) for a case analysis.

Both subproofs must prove the same fact, and then the ∨e rule finishes the proof. Here, line 9 states that, starting from the cases asserted on line 1, the proof that P proves the goal is stated in lines 3-5 and the proof that Q proves the goal is stated in lines 6-8.

The assumption on line 3 (and the one on line 6) acts like a local variable inside a function --- it can be used only within the function's body. This is because the assumption is a what-if premise that is used only for the sake of discussion of the case.

It is common to draw boxes around the subproofs, like this, rather than indent with ellipses:

1. P ∨ Q            premise
2. S                  premise
+--------------------------------------
| 3. P                 assumption  
| 4. P ∧ S            ∧i 3,2
| 5. (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)  ∨i1 4
+--------------------------------------
+--------------------------------------
| 6. Q                 assumption 
| 7. Q ∧ S            ∧i 6,2
| 8. (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)  ∨i2 7
+-------------------------------------
9.  (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ S)   ∨E 1, 3-5, 6-8
Do as you please.

Finally, here is a simple but vital proof:

===================================================

P ∨ P |− P

1. P ∨ P         premise

...  2. P            assumption

...  3. P            assumption

4. P             ∨e 1, 2-2, 3-3

===================================================

Tactics

There is one good tactic, and one not-so-good: If you examine the previous proof example, you see that the proof was constructed by applying the ∨e tactic, which made possible the use of the andi tactic upon the two subgoals. The ∨i tactic is used only when it is clear that it will yield progress towards the goal.

Examples from programming logic

This function can accept two varieties of argument:
===================================================

def reciprocal(n) :
    { pre  (n < 0) ∨ (n > 0) 
      post  answer == 1.0 /n
      return answer
    }
    answer = 1.0 / n
    return answer

# We show that the function's argument satisfies the precondition:
x = 5
{ 1. x == 5                premise
  2. x > 0                 algebra 1
  3. (x > 0) ∨ (x < 0)     ∨i1 2  
}
y = reciprocal(x)
{ 1.  y == 1.0/x                premise (by function-call law)
  2. x == 5                     premise (from above)
  3. x == 5  ∧  y == 1.0/x      ∧i 2,3 
}

===================================================
Here is a little programming trick:
if x < 0 :
    y = 0 - 1
else :
    y = 1
x = x * y
At the end x is always nonnegative, because the if-command sets y to the opposite parity (sign) as x. We can use ∨e to prove this:
===================================================

if x < 0 :
    y = 0 - 1
else :
    y = 1
{ 1. (x < 0 ∧ y == -1)  ∨  (x >=0 ∧ y == 1)  premise (if-law) }
x = x * y
{ 1. x == x_old * y                                       premise 
  2. (x_old < 0 ∧ y == -1)  ∨  (x_old >= 0 ∧ y == 1)  premise

  ... 3. x_old < 0 ∧ y == -1      assumption
  ... 4. x_old < 0                ∧e1 3
  ... 5. y == -1                   ∧e2 3
  ... 6. x_old * y > 0            algebra 4 5
  ... 7. x > 0                     subst 1 6
  ... 8. x >= 0                    algebra 7

  ... 9. x_old >=0 ∧ y == 1       assumption
  ... 10. x_old >= 0             ∧e1 9
  ... 11. y == 1                  ∧e2 10
  ... 12. xold * y >= 0           algebra 10  11
  ... 13. x >= 0                  subst 1 12
     
  14. x >= 0                        ∨e 2,3-8,9-13 
}

===================================================
The proof matches exactly the informal reasoning why x = x * y makes x nonnegative at the end.


5.5 Implies-introduction and Implies-elimination

Remember that —> is a kind of ``logical if-then.'' The word, ``implies'' has several shadings of meaning in spoken English, and there are multiple meanings of the word in logic. Here, we understand P —> Q to assert that P holds knowledge sufficient to deduce Q --- so, whenever P is proved to be a fact, then P —> Q enables Q to be proved a fact, too.

With this understanding, it is easy to accept that P, P —> Q |− Q; this yields the —>e rule.

But there must also be a rule for building propositions of the form, P —> Q. Say that a family of propositions, P, R, S, T, ... are enough to prove proposition, Q. Say we know that R, S, T, ... are facts. Thus, if we only knew that P was a fact, too, then we would have Q as a fact. In this sense, R, S, T, ... are enough to prove that P —> Q is a fact.

Stated more precisely, the situation where P, R, S, T, ... |− Q lets us conclude that R, S, T, ... |− P —> Q. These two ideas, which go hand in hand, are formalized below.

Rules:

        ... P assume                  
        ... Q                     P —> Q   P
—>i : -----------       —>e :  -----------------
        P —> Q                        Q
The —>i-rule is a case analysis --- it says, consider the case when P is a fact. (We don't know this for certain; it is a case/possibility we want to discuss.) If assuming P (plus using other facts we already have) leads to a proof of Q, then we conclude that P —> Q is a fact.

Examples

Here are two simple uses of —>e:
===================================================

(P ∧ Q) —> R,  P —> Q,  P  |−  R

1. (P ∧ Q) —> R           premise
2. P                      premise
3. P —> Q                 premise
4. Q                      —>e 3,2
5. P ∧ Q                 ∧i 2,4
6. R                      —>e 1,5

===================================================
===================================================

(P ∨ Q) —> R,  Q |−  R

1. (P ∨ Q) —> R        premise
2. Q                   premise
3. P ∨ Q              ∨i2 2
4. R                   —>e 1,3

===================================================
Here is an example that uses —>i:
===================================================

P,  (Q ∧ P) —> R  |−  Q —> R 

1. P                     premise
2. (Q ∧ P) —> R          premise

... 3. Q                           assumption
... 4. Q ∧ P                      ∧i 3,1
... 5. R                           —>e 2,4

6. Q —> R               —>i 3-5

===================================================
The proof includes the case that, when Q is assumed a fact then R would follow as a fact, too. The subproof lets us conclude that Q —> R is a fact.

Here, two if-then facts entail a third one:

===================================================

P —> Q,  Q —> R  |− P —> R

1. P —> Q     premise
2. Q —> R     premise

... 3.  P              assumption
... 4.  Q              —>e 1,3
... 5.  R              —>e 2,4

6. P —> R       —>i 3-5

===================================================
Notice how we assumed P to move the proof forwards to a proof of R. We employ a similar tactic in this example:
===================================================

P —> (Q —> R) |−  (Q ∧ P) —>  R

1. P —> (Q —> R)   premise

... 2. Q ∧ P          assumption
... 3. P              ∧e2 2
... 4. Q —> R         —>e 1,3
... 5. Q              ∧e1 2
... 6. R              —>e 4,6

7. (Q ∧ P) —>  R   —>i 2-6

===================================================

It is possible to nest cases-analyses, as in this cruical example:

===================================================

P —> R,  Q —> R  |−  (P ∨ Q) —> R

1. P —> R            premise
2. Q —> R            premise
... 3. P ∨ Q               assumption

... ... 4. P                       assumption
... ... 5. R                       —>e 1,4

... ... 6. Q                       assumption
... ... 7. R                       —>e 2,6

... 8. R                    ∨e 3,4-5,6-7
9. (P ∨ Q) —> R     —>i 3-8

===================================================
Here, the ``or reasoning'' is nested inside the ``implies reasoning.'' This example shows how mastery of basic deduction rules allows one to reason far more precisely than ordinary people do in real life.

Tactics

Implication comes with two good tactics: In an earlier proof example, you see an immediate use of the (***)-—>i tactic to the new subgoal,
P —> (Q —> R), Q ∧ P |− R
An easy application of the (**)-∧i tactic generates this simpler subgoal,
P —> (Q —> R), Q, P |− R
and we quickly finish the proof by applying the (*)-—>e tactic twice to deduce R.

Examples from programming logic

Recall the loop for finding a letter in a string:

===================================================

index = 0      # the position of the  letter  in  s  we are examining
found = False  # did we find  c  in  s  yet?

while index != len(s)  and  not found :
{ invariant  (found —> s[index] = c)  ∧
              (¬found —> ∀ 0 <= i < index, s[i] != c)
   modifies  found, index
}
    if  s[index] == c :
        found = True
    else :
        index = index + 1
# after we quit the loop:
{ 1. ¬(index != len(s)       premise
  2. invariant               premise
  3. index == len(s)         algebra 1
}

===================================================
After the loop finishes, we use —>e with the invariant to ensure that we print the correct answer:
===================================================

{ invariant }
if found :
   { 1. found                        premise
     2. invariant                    premise
     3. found —> (s[index] == c)       ∧e1 2
     4. s[index] == c                 —>e 3,1
   }
   print "found", c, "at", index
else :
   { 1. ¬found                        premise (from if-law)
     2. invariant                     premise
     3. index == len(s)               premise
     4. ¬found —> ∀ 0 <= i < index: s[i] != c    ∧e2 2
     5. ∀ 0 <= i < index, s[i] != c      —>e 3,1
     6. ∀ 0 <= i < len(s), s[i] != c      subst 3,5
   }
   print c, "not found"

{ (s[index] == c) ∨ (∀ 0 <= i < len(s), s[i] != c) }

===================================================
Here is a second example, where we reason backwards from the goal, x * y > 0, to obtain the subgoal for completing the program successfully:
===================================================

{  subgoal:  (x < 0 —> y <= 0)  ∧  (x >= 0 —> y > 0) }
if x < 0 :
    {  subgoal: 1. -1 * y >= 0
                2. y <= 0     algebra 1 }
    x = -1
    {  subgoal: x * y > 0 }
else :
    {  subgoal: 1. 1 * y > 0
                2. y > 0     algebra 1 }
    x = 1
    {  subgoal: x * y > 0 }

{  goal: x * y > 0 }

===================================================
We propose y = x + 1 as the command to start the program. To prove that the assignment achieves the subgoal established by the if-command, we undertake a proof that must use —>i (twice):
===================================================

y = x + 1
{  1. y == x + 1                 premise
   ... 2. x < 0                 assumption
   ... 3. x + 1 < 1             algebra 2
   ... 4. x + 1 <= 0            algebra 3
   ... 5. y <= 0                substitution 1, 4
   6. (x<0) —> (y <= 0)         —>i 2, 5

   ... 7. x >=0                 assumption
   ... 8. x + 1 > 0             algebra 7
   ... 9. y > 0                 algebra 8, 1
   10. (x >= 0) —> (y > 0)      —>i 7,9 

   11. (x < 0 —> y <= 0)  ∧  (x >= 0 —> y > 0)  ∧i 6,10  }

===================================================


5.6 Negation

The word, ``not,'' has many shadings in English, and it does also in logic. We might read ¬P as saying, ``P is not a fact,'' or ``the opposite of P is a fact,'' or ``P can never be a fact,'' or ``it is impossible for P to be a fact,'' or ''P is ruled out,'' or even ``P is false.'' The choice of deduction rules will decide the precise meaning of ¬P.

What is clearcut, however, is that whenever we can prove, P and also ¬P, for some proposition, P, we have a contradiction. A contradiction states an impossible situation, that is, P is a fact at the same time that it is not a fact. It is a ''crash'', ''the end of the world (or at least of the proof!).'' We use this symbol --- --- to stand for a contradiction. There is an extra rule to deduce you have proved a contradiction:

        P    ¬P
¬e :  ---------
        ⊥
(I don't like the name for this rule, but I will use it, anyway.)

If you start from some premises and you prove a contradiction, it means that the premises disagree with each other. (For example, from premises x > 0 and x < 0 we can deduce x > 0 ∧ ¬(x > 0). The problem is that the premises disagree about what is true at the start.)

When we encounter a contradiction in real life, we usually ``start over'' and try our reasoning again, from a different set of premises. In logic, contradictions are not only a signal that we should ``start over'' (that is, change the premises of the proof we are building), but they are also useful for finishing a line of logical reasoning where we must consider all cases, even the impossible ones, that follow from some starting set of premises.

There is a special law for reasoning forwards from an impossible situation --- the ⊥e law --- which says, in the case of a contradiction, everything becomes a fact. (That is, ``if False is a fact, so is everything else!''.)

Rule:

        ⊥
⊥e :  ------  for any proposition, Q, at all
        Q

Examples

The ⊥e-rule works well with case analysis, where we discover that one case is impossible. Here is the classic example:
===================================================

P ∨ Q, ¬P |− Q

1. P ∨ Q     premise
2. ¬P        premise

... 3. P         assumption
... 4. ⊥    ¬e 3,2
... 5. Q         ⊥e 4

... 6. Q        assumption

7. Q          ∨e 1,3-5,6-6

===================================================
Considering the premise, P ∨ Q, we develop the two-case analysis. The first case, where P holds true, is impossible, because it causes a contradiction. The ⊥e-rule lets us gracefully prove Q in this ``impossible case.'' (You can read lines 3-6 as saying, ``in the case when P might hold true, there is a contradiction, and in such an impossible situation, we can deduce whatever we like, so we deduce Q to finish this impossible case.'')

The second case, that Q holds true, is the only realistic case, and it immediately yields the consequent. The proof finishes the two-case analysis with a step of ∨e.

Here is another example:

===================================================

P —> ⊥ |−  P —> R

1. P —> ⊥       premise

... 2. P                  assumption
... 3. ⊥                —>e 1,3
... 4. R                  ⊥e 4 

5. P —> R    —>i 3-5 

===================================================
The sequent can be read as, ``if P generates a contradiction, then P generates anything we want!''. Here is a more interesting variation:
===================================================

¬P |−  P —> Q

1. ¬P     premise

... 2. P     assumption
... 3. ⊥   ¬e 2,1
... 4. Q      ⊥e 3

5. P —> Q   —>i 2-4

===================================================
That is, if P is impossible, we can make any old if-then claim we want about would follow if P somehow became a fact. (Example: ``if I am the president of the U.S., then everyone gets a tax refund of a million bucks.'' It's a true statement but not so useful, since I am not the president and will never be.)

Tactic

(*) -tactic: To prove Premises |− Q, if ¬P appears as a premise or as a proved fact in our partial proof, then
  1. prove Premises |− P
  2. use ¬e to deduce
  3. use the ⊥e-rule to deduce Q.
The structure is
1.   Premises     premise
       . . . 
i.   ¬P     
      (fill in)
j.   P
k.   ⊥           ¬e i,j
l.   Q            ⊥e k
In the previous proof example, we see that ¬P |− P —> Q is proved quickly once we obtain as a new fact (via an assumption, thanks to the (***)-—>i tactic!).

Examples from programming logic

Here is how we use the ⊥e-rule with an if-command to dismiss an impossible case in an efficient way:
===================================================

x = 3
if x > 0
    y = 1
else :
    y = 2
{ goal: y = 1 }

===================================================
Clearly, the then-arm is executed to get the result --- the else-arm will never execute. But the law for conditionals says we must analyze both arms to conclude a logical result in advance of execution. Our analysis quickly concludes that the else-arm is impossible, and the ⊥e-law finishes the job. Say that the goal of the code that follows is to force y == 1:
===================================================

x = 3
{ 1. x == 3     premise }
if x > 0
    { 1. x > 0        premise
      2. x == 3       premise
    }
    y = 1
    { 1. y == 1      premise  }
else :
    { 1. ¬(x > 0)   premise
      2. x == 3       premise
      3. (¬(x > 0) ∧ x == 3)   ∧i 1,2
    }
    y = 2
    { 1. y = 2                   premise
      2. ¬(x > 0) ∧ x == 3          premise
      3. ¬(x > 0)               ∧e1 2
      4. x == 3                   ∧e2 2
      5. x > 0                   algebra 4
      6. ⊥                     ¬e 5,3
      7. y == 1                    ⊥e 6   (!)
    }

{ 1. (y == 1) ∨ (y == 1)  premise
  ... 2.  y == 1               assumption

  ... 3.  y == 1               assumption
  4. y == 1               ∨e 1, 2-2, 3-3 
}

===================================================
Because it is impossible to have both ¬(x > 0) and x == 3 at the same time (line 6), we have reached an impossible situation, and we can conclude whatever we want to finish this impossible case.

A useful way of thinking about a contradiction is a kind of ''program crash''. A logic proof is like a computer program, and when one uses the premises (the ``inputs'') of a proof to compute a contradiction, this is like a program crash (a thrown exception). The ¬e rule announces the crash/exception, and the ⊥e rule acts like an exception handler, cleaning up the mess and outputting some recovery answer.


5.6.1 Negation introduction

Another rule for negation lets us deduce when an assertion is incompatible with facts we already know.

For example, say that Q, R, S, ... are some premises that we have used to prove facts. Say we add P to the premise set, but it is incompatible, that is, we prove, Q, R, S, ..., P |−. So, in a world where Q, R, S, ... are facts, P can never be a fact --- we have Q, R, S, ... |− ¬P.

Rule:

         ... P assume
         ... ⊥
¬i:   ----------
           ¬P
The rule says that we can discuss the case when P holds; if a contradiction results, then it is impossible for P to ever be a fact --- indeed, ¬P is the fact that holds.

Examples

===================================================

P,  Q —> ¬P  |−  ¬Q

1. P          premise
2. Q —> ¬P    premise

... 3. Q              assumption
... 4. ¬P             —>e 2,3
... 5. ⊥              ¬e 1,4
6. ¬Q        ¬i 3-5

===================================================
Here, the premises, P and Q —> ¬P, are so strong that it is impossible for Q to ever be proved as a fact. (Lines 3-5 show that, if Q ever was proved a fact, it would cause a contradiction/crash.) So, ¬Q (``Q is impossible'') is proved, instead.
===================================================

P |− ¬¬P

1. P           premise

... 2. ¬ P              assumption
... 3. ⊥                ¬e 1,2
4. ¬(¬P)        ¬i 2-3

===================================================
Note that the ¬i rule is not capable of proving ¬¬P |− P. Indeed, if ``it is impossible that it is impossible for P to be a fact'', does this mean that P (is proved to be) a fact? (Example: Last night, you came home late and used your keys to enter your apartment. This morning, you can't find your keys. You say, ``It's not that I don't have my keys!'' But do you have them in hand --- do you have the evidence that you have your keys? In mathematics, there are number problems where people have proved that it is impossible for there not to be a solution. But no one yet knows exactly what the solution is!)

These examples support this understanding of ¬P:

¬P says that ``P is impossible''
The three rules, ⊥e, ¬i, and ¬e, give the meaning of ``is impossible'' to the operator, ¬.

Tactic

The (***)-¬i tactic says, to prove Premises |− ¬ P,
  1. assume P
  2. prove Premises, P |−
  3. use ¬i
1.  Premises   premises
... i.  P      assumption
         (fill in)
... j.  ⊥
k. ¬P        ¬i, i-j
The ¬i-tactic was used with good success in the previous example.


5.6.2 Proof by contradiction

In circuit theory, the not-gate is a ``flipper'' --- it flips low voltage to high and vice versa. In integer arithemetic, the negative symbol flips positive ints to negatives and vice versa. In these areas, for a datum, D, the phrase, ¬D, means the ``opposite of'' or the ``complement of'' D.

In real life, we use opposites a lot --- the opposite of daytime is nighttime, the opposite of happy is sad, and so on. We might even say that ¬daytime equals nighttime, and so on. But what is ¬raining? Does it equal sunny? overcast? snowing? Some concepts have no natural opposite.

If we work with circuits or similar True/False or ``opposite'' systems, then then we should be able to prove ¬¬P |− P. Here is the rule that lets us do so:

Rule:

        ... ¬P assume
        ... ⊥
Pbc:   ----------
           P
The Pbc (``proof by contradiction'') rule says that, when ¬P leads to a contradiction, then we have built a proof of P.

That is, when "P is impossible" is impossible, Pbc concludes not only that "P is possible" but that "P is a certainty" --- a fact.

In a sense, Pbc builds ``something from nothing'' --- a ``proof'' of ''fact'' P from an argument that says ¬P leads to an impossible situation. But does this mean we have ``built'' P? In a world where the word ``not'' means the ``opposite of'', we have.

Examples

===================================================

¬¬P |− P

1. ¬¬P    premise

... 2. ¬P       assumption
... 3. ⊥       ¬e 2,1
4. P      Pbc 2-3

===================================================
===================================================

¬(¬P ∨ ¬Q)  |− P ∧ Q

1.  ¬(¬P ∨ ¬Q)  premise

... 2. ¬P           assumption
... 3. ¬P ∨ ¬Q      ∨i1 2
... 4. ⊥            ¬e 3,1
5.  P                Pbc 2-4  

... 6. ¬Q           assumption
... 7. ¬P ∨ ¬Q      ∨i2 6
... 8. ⊥            ¬e 3,1
9.  Q                Pbc 6-8  
    
10. P ∧ Q     ∧i 5,9

===================================================
Here is a famous consequence of Pbc: from no starting premises at all, we can prove P ∨ ¬P for any proposition we can imagine:
===================================================

|− P ∨ ¬P

... 1. ¬(P ∨ ¬P)      assumption

... ... 2. P                    assumption
... ... 3. P ∨ ¬P               ∨i1 2
... ... 4. ⊥                    ¬e 3,1

... 5.  ¬P             ¬i 2
... 6.  P ∨ ¬P         ∨i 5
... 7. ⊥              ¬e 6,1

8. P ∨ ¬P        Pbc 1-7

===================================================
Now that we have done this proof, say that P stands for ``God has red hair.'' We have this result:
|− ``God has red hair'' ∨ ¬(``God has red hair'')
Do you accept this? Perhaps the Pbc rule is not so well suited for deductions in the world of theology. A similar example is this one: let P stand for ``I have stopped kicking my dog.'' (But perhaps I do not even have a pet, let alone ever kicked one!)

Pbc constructs ``something from nothing.'' This appeals to circuit builders, where ¬ and are just gates/on-off switches, but not always to computer scientists, who like to compute/build data values and data structures in constructive ways, with algorithms. For this reason, some logicians (actually, not so many) refuse to accept the Pbc rule, except in specific circumstances.

Here is an example of a ``specific circumstance'': for the integers, if we can write a function,

def propertyP(i,j) :
    { pre  i and j are integers
      post  returns True or False and *always terminates* 
    }
that mechanically decides whether propertyP(m,n) is True or False for every possible combination of integers, m and n, then we can safely use the assertion,
|− propertyP(m,n) ∨ ¬propertyP(m,n)
for all choices of integers m and n. The function, propertyP, is called a decision procedure.

Typically, when people accept that |− P ∨ ¬P is a fact, it is because they are using a decision procedure to answer the question. When we consider situations that do not have decision procedures, the situation gets murky, as in the example about the color of God's hair.

Here is a surprising result, due to Pbc:

===================================================

P —> Q |− Q ∨ ¬P

1. P —> Q              premise
2. P ∨ ¬P             (previous proof, using Pbc)

... 3. P                       assumption
... 4. Q                       —>e 1,3
... 5. Q ∨ ¬P                  ∨i1 4

... 6. ¬P                       assumption
... 7. Q ∨ ¬P                  ∨i2 6

8. Q ∨ ¬P              ∨e 2, 3-5, 6-7

===================================================
This proof says that the dependency of Q on P forces us to conclude that either Q is already a fact or P is impossible. It is slightly odd that an ``if-then'' dependency would ensure either of the two outcomes. But this is the consequence of Pbc's ability to build something from nothing.

This result also relies on Pbc:

|− (P —> Q) ∨ (Q —> P)
for any choice whatsover of propositions P and Q. (An example: let P stand for ''It is raining'' and Q stand for ``I am the President.'' The above sequent holds true, even though there is no dependency between the two propositions. Why is that so? Is it reasonable? The claim looks more benign when we restrict P and Q to be propositions about logic gates. The moral is, certain logic rules are meant for certain application areas, and the Pbc rule works well in only circuit-theory-like worlds.)

This last result follows because Pbc lets us deduce that P —> Q |− Q ∨ ¬P --- no longer does P —> Q tell us that P gives the needed knowledge for constructing/deducing Q; no longer does P —> Q tell us that Q physically depends on P. Instead, due to Pbc, we must read P —> Q as stating a coincidence about the underlying True/False values of P and Q. For this reason, the —> operator is no longer necessary in a logic that uses the Pbc rule; this is why there is no need for an —> gate in circuit theory (you use Q ∨ ¬P instead).

There is no truly useful tactic for applying the Pbc-rule. It is indeed a rule of ``last resort'', because it says, to try to prove Premises |− P, one should assume ¬P and see if this leads one into a contradiction, that is, a proof that Premises,¬P |−. This is a kind of logical ``wild-goose chase.'' But later in the chapter, we will see how computers can be made to chase after such geese.


5.7 Important equivalences

These useful equivalences can be proved with the laws for And and Or: If you are an algebraist, you already knew these assertions, which characterize a distributive lattice.

When we add the rules for implies, we can prove one other key equivalence:

When we add the ¬e, ⊥e, and ¬i rules, we can also prove: Now we have characterized what algebraists call the Heyting lattices.

If we accept Pbc (or equivalently, we accept P ∨ ¬P as a fact), then we have these important results: (Note, for each equivalence, −||−, that follows, the first part, stated with |−, can be proved without Pbc, but the reverse direction requires Pbc.)

In algebra, the inference rules presented here for , , , and ¬ define the structure of a Boolean lattice, and the origins of modern abstract algebra and logic come from George Boole's attempt to formalize ``what it means'' to compute with , , ¬.


5.8 Conjunctive normal form

Computers can be programmed to manipulate propositions built with ∧, ∨, ¬. This is because the previous equivalences show we can eliminate all occurrences of —> and use ¬, ∨ instead (provided we accept the Pbc rule).

A more striking result (again, provided we accept the Pbc rule) is that every proposition written with ∧, ∨, ¬ can be rewritten as an equivalent proposition in this structure, called conjunctive normal form (cnf):

(A00 ∨ A01 ∨ ... A0n) ∧ (A10 ∨ A11 ∨ ... A1n) ∧ ... ∧ (Am0 ∨ Am1 ∨ ... Amn)
where each Aij is either a primitive proposition, P, or a negated primitive proposition, ¬P.

A cnf-proposition is an ``and-or'' proposition, where ``or-clauses'' (disjunctive clauses) are ``anded together.'' The cnf structure is easy for a computer to manipulate and forms the starting point for a powerful computerized proof technique known as resolution theorem proving, which we consider shortly.

For example, P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬R) is in cnf, but (P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬R is not. (Why?) But the latter proposition is equivalent to (P ∨ ¬R) ∧ (Q ∨ ¬R), which is in cnf.

Here is another example: ¬(Q ∨ ¬R) is equivalent to ¬Q ∧ ¬¬R, which is equivalent to ¬Q ∧ R, which is in cnf.

Again, a proposition in conjunctive normal form is a sequence of one or more conjunctions, A1 ∧ A2 ∧ ... ∧ Am, where each Ai is itself a sequence of one or more disjunctions, Bi1 ∨ Bi2 ∨ ... ∨ Bin, where each component, Bij, is itself a primitive proposition, P, or the negation, ¬P, of one.

There are specific logical equivalences we apply to transform a proposition into cnf. Here they are, stated within an algorithm that converts an arbitrary proposition into one in cnf:

  1. First, remove all implications, A —> B, with this equivalence:
    A —> B  −||−  ¬A ∨ B
    
  2. Next, move all remaining negation operators inwards, by repeatedly applying these equivalences:
    ¬(¬A)  −||−  A
    ¬(A ∧ B)  −||−  ¬A ∨ ¬B
    ¬(A ∨ B)  −||−  ¬A ∧ ¬B
    
  3. At this point, all negation operators appear next to primitive propositions. To finish, repeatedly apply (inside out) this equivalence to group together all disjunction operators:
    (A ∧ B) ∨ C  −||−  (A ∨ C)  ∧  (B ∨ C)
    
Let's apply these steps to a nontrivial example:
===================================================

(¬P —> Q) ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬R)         

−||−  (¬¬P ∨ Q)  ∨  ¬(Q ∨ ¬R)    (step 1)

−||−  (P ∨ Q)  ∨  ¬(Q ∨ ¬R) 
−||−  (P ∨ Q)  ∨  (¬Q ∧ ¬¬R) 
−||−  (P ∨ Q)  ∨  (¬Q ∧ R)              (step 2)

−||−  (¬Q ∨ P ∨ Q)  ∧  (R ∨ P ∨ Q)   (step 3)

===================================================
The result, which is in cnf, can be simplified further:
  1. Every disjunctive clause of form, (P ∨ Q ∨ ... ∨ Q ∨ R ∨ ...), can be reduced by removing duplicates of the same proposition: (P ∨ Q ∨ ... ∨ R ∨ ...)

  2. Every disjunctive clause of form, (P ∨ Q ∨ ... ∨ ¬Q ∨ R ∨ ...), is always true and can be reduced to True.
Looking at the previous example, we see that (¬Q ∨ P ∨ Q) ∧ (R ∨ P ∨ Q) reduces to True ∧ (R ∨ P ∨ Q), which is just R ∨ P ∨ Q. In this way, we reduce a complex proposition into its minimal, equivalent form, cnf.

These constructions suggest that propositional logic, using all the deduction rules including Pbc, boils down to an and-or game. And in some sense, this is true. But the story changes when we add the quantifiers, (``for all'') and (``there exists'').


5.8.1 Resolution theorem proving

Our deduction rules model common-sense thinking --- they are useful for humans but clumsy for computers. In the 1960's, J. Alan Robinson proposed a deduction system for computers that has proved useful and successful; it is called resolution theorem proving.

Resolution theorem proving depends on propositions in cnf as well as the Pbc rule. To prove a sequent, A1, A2, ..., Am |− B, we

  1. translate every Ai into its conjunctive normal form, A'i
  2. translate ¬B into its conjunctive normal form, notB'
  3. try to prove A'1, A'2, ..., A'm, notB' |−
If step 3 succeeds, we finish with the Pbc rule. This proves the result. We know how to do Steps 1 and 2, so let's focus on Step 3.

To do Step 3, we first reorganize all of A'1, A'2, ..., A'm, notB' into one large conjunctive normal form proposition, and then we split the proposition into its set of disjunctive clauses.

Here is an example. We want to prove

P —> R,  Q —> R |−  (P ∨ Q) —> R
We translate the premises and negated goal into this cnf proposition:
(¬P ∨ R) ∧ (¬Q ∨ R)  ∧  (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬R
This gives this set of disjunctive clauses:
{¬P ∨ R,  ¬Q ∨ R,  P ∨ Q,  ¬R}
From these clauses, we must prove a contradiction.

To finish Step 3, we forget our existing deduction rules and use just this one deduction rule, the resolution rule, which works with disjunctive clauses:

         A ∨ P     ¬P ∨ B
res:  -------------------------- 
              A ∨ B
The res rule maps two facts to a new fact. Indeed, by a nested cases analysis (∨e), we can manually prove that A ∨ P, ¬P ∨ B |− A ∨ B. This is why we can use res as a deduction rule.

But res is a special deduction rule, because the clause it generates is smaller than the union of its two premises --- it removes a proposition from future computation. So, if we use res on all possible combinations of all the disjunctive premises that we started with, at some point we will generate all possible facts --- the mechanical application of res will not run forever.

Here is the example and a proof using the res rule. When we apply the res rule, we connect the two clauses used:

===================================================

  ¬P ∨ R           ¬Q ∨ R          P ∨ Q          ¬R
      |              |              |              |
      |              +--------------+              |
      |                    R ∨ P                   |
      |                      |                     |
      +----------------------+                     |
                R ∨ R  =  R                        |
                       |                           |
                       +---------------------------+
                                (empty) = ⊥

===================================================
We used res three times and deduced an empty disjunctive clause, which means False, that is . Notice we compressed the clause, R ∨ R, into just R. This is a key step in applying the res rule to uncover .

The proof search can be conducted more than one way:

===================================================

   ¬P ∨ R          ¬Q ∨ R          P ∨ Q         ¬R
      |              |              |              ||
      |              +--------------+              ||
      |                    R ∨ P                   ||
      |                     |                      ||
      |                     +----------------------+|
      |                               P             |
      |                               |             |
      +-------------------------------+             |
                    R                               |
                    |                               |
                    +-------------------------------++
                            (empty) = ⊥

===================================================
Here, the premise ¬R must be used twice to prove the contradiction. For this reason, a computerized implementation tries all possible combinations of each res-generated clause with all existing clauses, searching to build an empty clause.

Of course, if a sequent is unsound, resolution will not prove it. For example, if we try to prove that P ∨ Q entails P ∧ Q (and of course it does not), we attempt this proof, which fails:

P ∨ Q           ¬P ∨ ¬Q
  |                |
  +----------------+
      Q ∨ ¬Q       |           (always true --- this clause can be ignored)
         |         |
         +---------+
            ¬Q ∨ ¬P           (back where we started; no use continuing...)
There is no way to deduce an empty clause. Indeed, the set of clauses we can possibly generate consists of everything we see in the above attempt (if we include the mirror clause, P ∨ ¬P, which is easily generated, too). And this is why an implementation can halt the proof search --- if the implementation generates all possible combinations of disjunctive clauses and no more new clauses appear, then the search stops, with failure.

Implementing CNF and resolution theorem proving with nested lists

A formula in conjunctive normal form has a simple computer representation as a list of lists, that is,
(A00 ∨ A01 ∨ ... A0n) ∧ (A10 ∨ A11 ∨ ... A1n) ∧ ... ∧ (Am0 ∨ Am1 ∨ ... Amn)
is represented in computer storage as the nested list,
[ [A00, A01, ..., A0n],  [A10, A11, ..., A1n], ..., [Am0, Am1, ..., Amn] ]
For example, (¬Q ∨ P ∨ Q) ∧ (R ∨ P ∨ Q) is the nested list, [["~Q", "P", "Q"], ["R", "P", "~Q"]].

The list representation makes it easy to implement resolution theorem proving: To prove a sequent, A1, A2, ..., Am |− B, we

  1. translate every Ai into its conjunctive normal form (nested list), A'i, and translate ¬B into its conjunctive normal form (nested list), notB'
  2. append the nested lists into one long list of "disjunctive facts": facts = A'1 + A'2 + A'M + notB'.
  3. Search the elements of list facts, searching for two lists, L1 and L2, such that proposition "~X" is in L1 and "X" is in L2.
    If no such L1 and L2 are found, then we finish with failure --- there is no proof.
    Else we find such L1 and L2, and we build the list, L3, which equals L1 + L2 but with both "~X" and "X" removed. IMPORTANT: L3 must be a list that is not already in facts. (If such an L3 cannot be found, then we finish with failure.)
    If L3 == [], we finish with success.
    If L3 != [], then we insert L3 at the front of facts and repeat this step.
Here's how the above algorithm operates on the earlier example, proving the sequent, P —> Q, Q —> R |− (P ∨ Q) —> R:


5.9 Models of Propositional logic: soundness and completeness

When we say that ``P is a fact,'' what does this mean? Perhaps it means ``P is True,'' or ``P is proved,'' or ``our confidence in P is absolute.''

The purpose of this section is to describe ways that we give meaning to propositions and to show that the deduction rules in this chapter generate new knowledge that means what we think it means.


5.9.1 Truth tables

The most basic interpretation of propositions is that a proposition means either True (t, 1) or False (f, 0). This is a ``circuit theory'' interpretation. In this situation, the meanings of the connectives, , , ¬ are given by the truth tables in Chapter 0.

Return to Chapter 0 of these notes and review the truth tables for , , ¬. A truth table defines how the ''inputs'' P and Q are converted into ``outputs.'' Next, here is the standard truth table for —>:

     P Q |  P —> Q
---------------
     t t | t
     t f | f
     f t | t
     f f | t
The table's last two rows are a bit surprising --- indeed, neither t nor f seem exactly correct as outputs here! Think of P —> Q as ``the truth of P forces the truth of Q.'' So, when P is f, then Q is not forced to be anything at all. This makes t a reasonable answer for the last two rows of the table.

In a more technical sense, the values in the last two rows connect to our ability to prove ¬P |− P —> Q and also ¬P |− P —> ¬Q --- they relate to our willingness to consider impossible cases (and embrace the ⊥e rule).

Nonetheless, we see that our understanding of implication as a truth table is open to discussion.

Recall that we can build a truth table of a compound proposition. We can do this for any sequent, computing the values of its premises and its goal. Here is an example:

P, Q ∨ R  |−  (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)


P  Q  R  |  P   Q ∨ R      (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)
-------------------------------------------------------
t  t  t  |  t     t                 t
t  t  f  |  t     t                 t
t  f  t  |  t     t                 t
t  f  f  |  t     f                 f
f  t  t  |  f     t                 f
f  t  f  |  f     t                 f
f  f  t  |  f     t                 f
f  f  f  |  f     f                 f
According to the compound truth table, P, Q ∨ R entails (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R), because, in every row where both P and also Q ∨ R compute to t, then so does (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).

We can of course use the deduction rules to build a proof of P, Q ∨ R |− (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).

Now, we have two questions:

  1. soundness: When we use the deduction rules to prove that P1, P2, ..., Pn |− Q, does this mean that the compound truth table also shows that P1, P2, ..., Pn entails Q ?
  2. completeness: When we use a compound truth table and calculate that P1, P2, ..., Pn entails Q, does this mean we can use the deduction rules to build a proof that P1, P2, ..., Pn |− Q ?
When we use all the inference rules presented in this chapter (that is, ∧i, ∧e, ∨i, ∨e, —>i, —>e, ⊥e, ¬i, ¬e, Pbc) then the short answer to both questions is ``yes.'' The inference rules encode completely all the information within truth tables, and truth tables decode all the deductions of inference rules.

Because of soundness and completeness, one way to determine whether there is a proof for a sequent, P1, P2, ..., Pn |− Q, is to build its truth table and see if the truth table tells us whether the claim is true. If yes, then we know there is a proof. This brute-force technique is easy to program; why did we bother to learn about conjunctive normal form and resolution theorem proving, then? The reason is that truth tables will fail us when we add the for-all () and there-exists () operators to logic, but resolution theorem proving can and will be expanded to work with quantifiers. This is the reason for its success.

The reason why truth tables predict existence of proofs is because they are tied to the Pbc rule. Say that we are purists and refuse to use the Pbc inference rule. The set of rules that remain are certainly sound with respect to the truth tables, but they are not complete. (For example, a compound truth table shows that |− P ∨ ¬P, but this cannot be proved without Pbc.)

You might argue that the deduction system lacking Pbc is too weak. Or, you might argue that our understanding of the meaning of propositions is incorrect.

(If you are an algebraist, you shrug your shoulders, because you already know that the full set of deduction rules is sound and complete for any mathematical model of meaning that forms a Boolean lattice. The set of rules that omit Pbc is sound and complete for any any mathematical model of meaning that forms a Heyting lattice. The details are below.)

The point is, meaning goes beyond primitive notions like {0, 1} and {t, f}, and mathematicians have understood this for about 200 years. Indeed, there are many different forms of meaning and many different forms of symbolic logic that deduce assertions with those meanings.


5.9.2 Boolean lattices

If we believe all propositions are either True (t, 1) or False (f, 0), we run into an immediate problem with a statement like x > 0 --- is it True or False? The correct answer is, ``it depends (on the context in which it is stated, that is, on the value of x).''

Propositions must be understood in the context in which they are stated, and x > 0 is True sometimes and is False sometimes. Rather than using a simple two-valued, t,f, model of meaning, we should generalize to a model that takes context into account. The appropriate generalization of the two-valued truth-table model to a many-valued model is called a Boolean lattice.

The meaning of a proposition is the set of all the contexts that make the proposition a fact. For example, in algebra class, perhaps we study the properties of an unknown integer variable, x. We make statements like this:

x > 0
x + 1 = 2
x % 2 = 0
2x - x = x
x = x + 1
We next ask, ``in which contexts are these propositions facts?'' We write [[ P ]] to name the set of those contexts that make P a fact. For the above primitive propositions, in a ``universe'' of integers, we have
[[ x > 0 ]] = { 1, 2, 3, ... }    (that is,  x > 0  is a fact in the context
                                     where  x  equals 1 or 2 or 3 or ...)
[[ x + 1 = 2 ]] = { 1 }
[[ x % 2 = 0 ]] = { ... -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ... }
[[ 2x - x = x ]] = Int,  that is,  { ..., -2,-1,0,1,2,3, ... }
[[ x = x + 1 ]] = { }
These sets are the meanings of the propositions. What is the ``world of meanings'' from which these sets are taken? Surely, it is not just t,f --- it is the set of all subsets of the integers. (We write this is P(Int), where Int = {...,-2,-1,0,1,2,...}.) Here is a crude, partial drawing of this world of meanings, P(Int):
                    {...,-2,-1,0,1,2,3, ...}
    ...

  ...   {...,-2,0,2,4,6,...}      {...,-1,1,3,5,7, ...}     {1,2,3, ...}  ...

    ...

  ...    {-2,0,2}       {-1,0,1}    {-2,0,1}    {0,1,2}  ...

  ... {-2,-1}  {-2,0}  {-1,0}  {0,1}  {0,2}  {-1,1}  {1,2} ...

  ...  {-2}     {-1}        {0}         {1}         {2}   ...

                            { }
This collection is infinite, and many sets within the collection are infinite. The structure is a Boolean lattice, named after George Boole, who studied first this form of meaning-world: It lets us union sets, intersect sets, and make complements of sets.

Conjunction, disjunction, negation

We use the Boolean lattice give meaning to , , and ¬. Say that U is the set of all contexts under study. Each proposition, P, has a meaning that is some subset of U. (In the above example, U = Int = {0,1,2,3,...}.) We define the connectives like this:

===================================================

[[ P ∧ Q ]] =  [[P]] intersection [[Q]]    
                              (that is, the set of contexts that
                               make both P a fact and Q a fact is the intersection of
                               the set that makes P a fact with the one that
                               makes Q a fact)
[[ P ∨ Q ]] =  [[P]] union [[Q]]

[[ ¬P ]]  =  U - [[P]]   (that is, set complement: remove all contexts
                               where [[P]] is a fact)

===================================================
For example,
[[ (x + 1 = 2) ∨ (x % 2 = 0) ]] =  [[ x + 1 = 2 ]] union [[ x % 2 = 0 ]] = {...,-2,0,1,2,4,...}

[[ (x > 0) ∧ (x + 1 = 2) ]] = [[ x > 0 ]] intersection [[ x + 1 = 2 ]] = {1}

[[ ¬(x + 1 = 2) ]] =  {...-2,-1,0,1,2,...} - {1}  =  {...-2,1,0,2,3,...}
With these definitions, it is easy to calculate that [[ P ∨ ¬P ]] = Int, [[ P ∧ ¬P ]] = { }, and so on. Indeed, all the logical equivalences stated in the earlier section become set equalities in the Boolean-lattice model, e.g., [[ P ∧ Q ]] = [[ ¬(¬P ∨ ¬Q) ]] and [[ P ]] = [[ ¬¬P ]]. Just as important, entailment is understood as subset containment, .

It is a famous and important result that the full set of deduction rules in this chapter are sound and complete for the Boolean-lattice models:

The key is that meanings are sets, so is just set intersection, is set union, and ¬ is set complement. This gives a smooth understanding of logic, and it is remarkable that the common-sense deduction rules match elementary set theory.

Implication

But what about implication? Read P —> Q as saying, ``when a context makes P a fact, that same context forces Q to be a fact, too.'' Here is an appropriate definition of P —> Q as a set of contexts, namely, those contexts that make P a fact also force Q to be a fact:

[[ P —> Q ]] =  S,  where  S  is the largest set of contexts
                      such that   S  intersection [[ P ]] ⊆ [[Q]]
(IMPORTANT: the previous line is just a restatement of the —>e rule: [[ P —> Q ]] ∧ [[P]] |− [[Q]] !)

In the Boolean lattice model seen above, set S is merely [[ Q ]] union (S - [[ P ]]), that is,

[[ P —> Q ]] =  [[ ¬P ∨ Q ]])
The equivalence, P —> Q −||− Q ∨ ¬P, holds true in the Boolean-lattice model. This is a bit disappointing, but it is the price we pay for defining negation as set complement (``the opposite of'').

There is one final observation: If we define

[[ ⊥ ]] =  { }
that is, no context can ever make a contradiction into a fact, then
[[ ¬P ]]  =  [[ P —> ⊥ ]]
because [[ ¬P ]] is exactly the largest set, S, where S intersect [[ P ]] ⊆ { }. This means negation is unnecessary to logic provided we have implication and contradiction. It also suggests the reading of ¬P as ``P is impossible'' is appropriate.

Other Boolean lattices

There are simpler Boolean lattices than the powerset of all the integers. The following are all examples of Boolean lattices, where U names the ``universe'' of possible contexts. All can be used to give sematics to propositional logic:

  U0 = {1}         U1 = {day,night}          U2 = {wkday,sat,sun}


    {1}             {day,night}                       {wkday,sat,sun}

    {}            {day}    {night}         {wkday,sat}   {wkday,sun}   {sat,sun}

                        {}                     {wkday}     {sat}       {sun}
                   
                                                            {}
Think of propositions that have meanings in each of these universes, e.g., for universe U2, say that P is ``Burger King is open today'' and [[P]] = {wkday,sat}; and say that Q is ``Burger King stays open late today'' and [[Q]] = {sat}. Now compute the semantics of P ∧ Q, ¬P, P —> Q (it's {sat,sun}!), Q —> P, etc.

The universe, U0 = {1}, generates the truth-table semantics of propositional logic. (True is {1} and False is {}.) Truth tables are a special case of Boolean-lattice semantics.


5.9.3 Data structures as meanings; Heyting lattices

If we believe that the claim, P —> Q −||− Q ∨ ¬P, is too strong, then we can back away from it by discarding the Pbc rule. In this case, the equivalence breaks, and implication P —> Q is now distinct from Q ∨ ¬P and also from ¬(P ∧ ¬Q). This is a high price to pay, because it means ¬¬P is no longer equivalent to P and we can no longer prove |− P ∨ ¬P. It also means we cannot use the truth-table or Boolean-lattice models. But the models we use instead give us insight into the meanings of implication and negation and even tie the meaning of symbolic logic to computer programs.

The meaning of a proposition is a program

When we program, we think in terms of data types. For example, 3 has data type int, "abc" has type string, and so on. For languages that use compilers (C#, Java, SML, etc.), the compiler will check that data values are used consistently with their data types (e.g., adding an int to a float is OK, but one cannot add a string to an array).

Perhaps you noted that the ∧i rule is a kind of pairing rule: ∧i pairs a proof of P and a proof of Q to make a proof of P ∧ Q. We can make pairs in Python, like this:

p = (3, "abc")
p is a pair of data type int ∧ string! We index the pair like this
print p[0], p[1]   # prints   3 "abc"
The indexing looks like what we do with the ∧e rules. (By the way, C# uses Tuples to construct such pairs.)

There is also a coincidence between functions and the rules for implication. When we prove P —> Q with —>i, we use an assumption, P, to prove Q. In Python, we build functions that take parameters (``assumptions'') to return answers, e.g.,

def f(s):        # pre:   s  has data type  string
   ans = len(s)  #   calculate the length of string  s
   return  ans   # post:  ans has data type  int
This function has as its data type, string —> int. C# force us to declare the types:
public int f(string s) {   // f's data type is  string —> int
    int ans = s.Length;
    return ans;
}
The code shows how to use a value of type string to construct a value of type int. In general, a function that takes an argument of data type P to construct an answer of type Q has data type, P —> Q.

When we call such a function, by supplying an argument of data type, P, we get in return an answer of type Q (e.g., f("abc") for the above function). This is the same as applying the —>e-rule to a proof of type P —> Q and a proof of type P to get a proof of type Q as the answer.

There is a general principle here: the meaning of a proposition need not be a true-false value or a set of contexts but a program, and a proposition is a fact exactly when we construct a program that has the proposition as its data type. For example, the pair, (3, "abc"), is evidence that int ∧ string is a fact --- can be built. This is an adventurous turn that connects logic with programming. It is called the Heyting interpretation of logic.

The previous paragraph suggests that whenever we write a proof in logic, we are building a program, and whenever we are building a program, we are writing a logic proof! Here's an example of a proof and the C# program that is constructed from the proof:

(p ∧ q) —> r,  q  |−   p —> r

1. (p ^ q) -> r          premise
2.  q                    premise
+---------------------------------
|  3.  p        assumption
|  4.  p ^ q    ^i 3,2
|  5.  r        ->e 1,4
+--------------------------------
6.  p -> r               ->i 3-5
The above proof is a program --- To see why, let:
    p  ==  int
    q  ==  string
    r  ==  bool
Then, from the library components (global variables),
 
    public bool doStuff(int x, string y)  // (int ∧ string) —> bool,
and
    string data                           //  string
we built this program, public bool myProc(int z) (of "type" int —> bool):
===================================================

                                           // 1. presume  doStuff  is a global var
                                           // 2. presume  data  is a global var
    public bool myProc(int z) {            //    3. assume you have an int param,  z
        Tuple<int,string> args = (z, data) //    4. introduce a pair/tuple (^i)
        bool ans = doStuff(args)           //    5. call doStuff with the pair (->e)
        return ans                         //       and get the bool,  ans
    }                                      // 6. end function def (->i)

===================================================
(Notice how we use names, like doStuff, args, and ans, and assignments in place of "line numbers" in the program/proof.)

The key lies in the data typing: the data types of the C# phrases are the propositions that are proved on each line. The lines of the program are lines of a proof. The type checker for C# extracts the types and constructs a logic proof when it does type checking!

Here is a summary of how propositions match to program code:

Using these techniques, we can translate any proof in propositional logic into a program and any program into a proof. The meaning of a proposition is the set of all the programs that have that proposition as its data type.

To finish this development, we treat ¬P as an abbreviation for P —> ⊥ --- ¬P is a computer function that does raise Exception if it is ever called with a P data structure as its argument! In this way, both P and ¬P cannot participate together in a useful computation --- an exception gets raised.

With the above understanding --- the Heyting interpretation --- of the rules, ∧i, ∧e, ∨i, ∨e, —>i, —>e, and ⊥e (note that the ¬e and ¬i rules are unnecessary when we treat ¬P as P —> ⊥), we have

In this reading, programming and logic are the ``same thing.''

Notice that the assignment command is missing from the above explanation. Assignment is used to name phrases, so assignments act as the "line numbers" of proofs. But loops and recursive functions are missing, too. Propositional logic is not expressive enough by itself to represent repetitive computation. But when we move to predicate logic (and study the programming language Prolog), we will express this feature by means of "recursively defined propositions."

The ideas in this section are often used to define the type-checking laws for a modern programming language. The constructions of the language are written in inference-rule form, and a compiler's type checker is a proof-checker that checks that a program is correctly written according to the inference rules. In this way, a modern programming language is a logic, like the one we studied in this chapter, and when we are writing a program, we are writing a proof in the program's ``typed-syntax logic.'' There are many scholarly texts that show how one designs and uses languages in this way.

Heyting lattices

Perhaps would like to see a lattice model for the deduction rules less Pbc. The needed structure is a Heyting lattice.

A key property of a Boolean lattice, P(U), generated from universe set U, is that every set, S in P(U), has as its complement, U - S. This justifies the claim that P −||− ¬¬P and supports the Pbc rule.

The absence of Pbc as a sound reasoning rule means that we can use lattice models that lack a set-complement operation, that is, the model no longer needs to hold all possible subsets of U as contexts and this means for some sets, S, in the lattice, U - S does not exist.

A lattice that has fewer sets in it than the powerset lattice, P(U), and can support the following operations is called a Heyting lattice. (Note: the explanation that follows is simplified but conveys the key ideas.)

  1. {} exists in the lattice.
  2. For all sets P and Q, both P union Q and P intersection Q exist in the lattice.
  3. For all sets P and Q, there is a set, R, such that
    * P intersection R is a subset of Q
    * for all other sets, W, such that P intersection W is a subset of Q, W is a subset of R.
    That is, R is the largest set in the lattice such that P intersection R is a subset of Q. The set, R, is named P implies Q.
Again, think of a Heyting lattice as a collection of context sets but the set-complement of a context set is not always defined. Here is the new semantics of propositional logic:
[[ P ]] = the set of contexts in which  P  is a fact (just like before)

[[ P ∧ Q ]] =  [[ P ]] intersection [[ Q ]]

[[ P ∨ Q ]] =  [[ P ]] union [[ Q ]]


[[ P —> Q ]] =  [[ P ]] implies [[ Q ]],
                 that is, the largest set, R, of contexts, such that
                 R intersection [[ P ]] ⊆ [[ Q ]]
                 
[[ ⊥ ]] = {}
Negation is an abbreviation:
[[ ¬P ]] =  [[ P —> ⊥ ]],
                 that is, the largest set, R, of contexts, such that 
                             R intersection [[ P ]] = {}
                 that is, the largest set, R, that is disjoint from  [[P]]

With substantial work, one can prove soundness and completeness for the deduction rules less Pbc for Heyting lattices.

Heyting lattices can express real-life contexts --- think of possible weather situations: There might be sun, clouds, or wetNclouds (and if it's wet, then there must be clouds, too!) Here is a lattice of combinations of these options:

             {sun, clouds}
              /       \      
  {sun, wetNclouds}  {clouds}
    /         \      /     
{sun}      {wetNclouds}
     \    /
       {}
Some combinations are missing. ({clouds} means the same thing as {clouds, wetNclouds} --- "clouds or wet-and-clouds".) We have these semantics:
[[ It is clear ]] = {sun}
[[ It is raining ]] = {wetNclouds}
[[ It is overcast ]] = {clouds}

[[ It is clear ∨ It is overcast ]] = {sun, clouds}
[[ It is clear ∧ It is overcast ]] = {}
[[ It is overcast ∧ It is raining ]] = {wetNclounds},  which is  {clouds} intersect {wetNclouds}
[[ It is raining ∨ it is overcast ]] = {clouds}, which is  {clouds} union {wetNclouds}

[[ ¬(It is raining) ]] = {sun},   which is the largest set, R, such that  R intersect {wetNclounds} = {}
[[ ¬(¬(It is raining) ]] = {clouds}

[[ It is clear —> It is raining ]] = {},   because no context makes this true
[[ It is raining —> It is overcast ]] = {sun, clouds},  because the claim holds in the largest possible context set

Any finite, distributive lattice is a Heyting lattice. Such lattices appear in data-flow analyzers in compilers. Every Boolean lattice is a Heyting lattice, but there are Heyting lattices that are not Boolean lattices (e.g., above).


5.9.4 Possible-worlds (Kripke) structures

Here are two questions for which no one knows the answer:

  1. Goldbach's conjecture: Every even integer larger than 2 is the sum of two primes. (For example, 4 = 2+2, 6 = 3+3, 8 = 5+3, 10 = 7+3, etc.) Even-valued integers up to 1018 have been checked, and all satisfy Goldbach's conjecture. But no one has stated a proof that the conjecture holds for all even integers.
  2. Collatz's conjecture: This program terminates for all integer inputs:
    n = readInt()
    while n > 1 :
        if n % 2 = 0 :
            n = n / 2
        else :
            n = 3*n + 1
    print n
    
    The program has been tested with integers up to about 1018 as well, with successful termination. But no one has stated a proof that the conjecture holds for all integers.

Goldbach's conjecture and Collatz's conjecture are open, unsolved problems; they are not known to be facts or falsities as of today. We cannot claim Goldbach ∨ ¬Goldbach as of today --- we just don't know. If we accept the Pbc rule, which lets us prove |− Goldbach ∨ ¬Goldbach, then we have a practical problem: Is Goldbach's conjecture proved True or is it proved False? The ``proof'' of |− Goldbach ∨ ¬Goldbach is impractical --- it is a claim empty of content. Maybe someday in the future someone will prove or disprove Goldbach's conjecture.

A possible-worlds (Kripke) model gives meaning to propositions with respect to the passage of time. For each point in time, there is a sets listing those primitive facts that are known at that specific time. The sets are organized with regards to the passage of time, so that a fact known at time n holds for all future times, m > n, as well. And, as time passes, we discover new primitive facts, so that the sets grow in size.

In this formulation, P ∧ Q, at time n, is understood as saying, ``both P and Q are known to be facts as of now (time n) and from now on (times m > n). P ∨ Q means ``P is known to be a fact, or Q is known to be a fact as of now and from now on.'' ¬P means ``P is not a fact now and will never be in the future.'' That is, we know it is impossible for P to ever be known as a fact.

P —> Q is understood as saying, ``if P is ever discovered as a fact now or at any time in the future, we will find Q as a fact at that very same time.'' In this way, P —> Q can be a fact before P is uncovered as a fact.

Also, there are times when we cannot establish P and we cannot establish ¬P either. This might be the case at the start of time, where we know (almost) no facts at all. Or, it might be as of today, with respect to Goldbach's and Collatz's conjectures.

In the possible-worlds model, the meaning of a proposition is the times when the proposition is known as a fact. The possible-worlds model is sound and complete for our deduction rules less Pbc. (With some work, we can extract a Heyting lattice.)

A possible-worlds (Kripke) model shows all of time, including the present time and all possible future times. For example, say that we work in a propositional logic where there are three primitive propositions, G (stands for ``Goldbach's conjective holds''), C (stands for ``Collatz's conjecture holds), and B (''Bush is president''). Here is a Kripke model that shows how time might unfold with regards to these three primitive propositions: (In the picture, time moves from left to right.)


      +--b:{C}--+-----c:{C,G}
      |         | 
a:{ }-+         +----d:{C}
      |
      +------------e:{G,B}
The model says, at the start of time, a, we know neither C nor G nor B. In one future, b, we discover C, in another possible future, e, we discover G and B. From b, we might progress to futures c or d. Futures c, d, and e mark the end of time. (It is of course acceptable to have Kripke structures that allow time to run forever!)

At time a, C is not a fact, nor is ¬C. But at time b, C is a fact. Also at b, ¬B is a fact because it is impossible for B to be discovered at any future reachable from b. So, at b, C ∧ ¬B is a fact. Also at a, B —> G is a fact, because at all futures reachable from a, whenever B appears, G does also.

To summarize, here are the meanings of some propositions in the above Kripke model:

[[ C ]] = {b,c,d}

[[ ¬B ]] = {b,c,d}

[[ C ∧ ¬B ]] = {b,c,d}

[[ ¬C ]] = {e}

[[ C ∨ ¬ C ]] = {b,c,d,e}

[[ B —> G ]] = {a,b,c,d,e}

[[ G —> B ]] = {d,e}
Kripke models are also useful in database and artificial-intelligence applications, when one must state propositions and do deductions based on what is already known and what might be known in the future. (The logic for doing this is called modal logic.) Also, state-transition diagrams, which are used to describe the behaviors of multi-object programs and also computer networks, are Kripke structures, and there is a logic, called temporal logic, that one uses to analyze these systems.


5.10 Summary of rules and tactics

As a general principle, when you are proving a claim,
S1, S2, ... |− T
first look at the connectives within T and note that you will probably need the introduction rules for those connectives to assemble the clauses you prove into T. Then, look at the connectives within each of the premises, Si, and note that you will probably need the elimination rules for those connectives to disassemble the premises into the primitive propositions needed to assemble into T.

To choose the order for using the introduction and elimination rules, think about the tactics you might use to disassemble the premises and assemble the goal. The inference rules in this chapter are reviewed below in the order in which they should be tactically applied: